Strong Carbon Features and a Red Early Color in the Underluminous Type Ia SN 2022xkq

Abstract

Copyright and License

© 2023. The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society. Original content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.

Acknowledgement

Time-domain research by the University of Arizona team, J.P., and D.J.S. is supported by NSF grants AST-1821987, 1813466, 1908972, 2108032, and 2308181 and by the Heising-Simons Foundation under grant No. 2020-1864.

P.L. acknowledges support from the Swedish Research Council.

L.G. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MCIN), the Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) 10.13039/501100011033, and the European Social Fund (ESF) "Investing in your future" under the 2019 Ramón y Cajal program RYC2019-027683-I and the PID2020-115253GA-I00 HOSTFLOWS project; from Centro Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) under the PIE project 20215AT016; and from the program Unidad de Excelencia María de Maeztu CEX2020-001058-M.

This publication was made possible through the support of an LSSTC Catalyst Fellowship to K.A.B., funded through grant 62192 from the John Templeton Foundation to LSST Corporation. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of LSSTC or the John Templeton Foundation.

Research by Y.D., S.V., N.M.R, E.H., and D.M. is supported by NSF grant AST-2008108.

The Keck Infrared Transient Survey was executed primarily by members of the UC Santa Cruz transients team, who were supported in part by NASA grants NNG17PX03C, 80NSSC21K2076, 80NSSC22K1513, and 80NSSC22K1518; by NSF grant AST–1911206; and by fellowships from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation to R.J.F. KITS was directly supported by NASA grant 80NSSC23K0301.

S.B.'s work was supported by the "Programme National de Physique Stellaire" (PNPS) of CNRS/INSU, co-funded by CEA and CNES, and has made use of computing facilities operated by CeSAM data center at LAM, Marseille, France.

M.N. is supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 948381) and by UK Space Agency grant No. ST/Y000692/1.

This work was funded in part by ANID, Millennium Science Initiative, ICN12_009.

J.S. acknowledges support from the Packard Foundation.

Y.-Z.C. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, grant No. 12303054) and the International Centre of Supernovae, Yunnan Key Laboratory (No. 202302AN360001).

I.S. is supported by funding from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR), PRIN 2017 (grant 20179ZF5KS), and PRIN-INAF 2022 project "Shedding light on the nature of gap transients: from the observations to the models" and acknowledges the support of the doctoral grant funded by Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica via the University of Padova and MIUR.

The SALT data presented here were obtained via Rutgers University program 2022-1-MLT-004 (PI: S.W.J.).

L.A.K. acknowledges support by NASA FINESST fellowship 80NSSC22K1599.

C.L. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under grant No. DGE-2233066.

M.M. acknowledges support in part from ADAP program grant No. 80NSSC22K0486, from the NSF AST-2206657, and from the HST GO program HST-GO-16656.

L.C. is grateful for support from NSF grants AST-2107070 and AST-2205628.

This work was performed in part at the Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by National Science Foundation grant PHY-2210452.

The Australia Telescope Compact Array is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility, ⁵⁸ which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. We acknowledge the Gomeroi people as the traditional owners of the Observatory site. The ATCA data reported here were obtained under Program C1473 (P.I. S. Ryder).

The Las Cumbres Observatory group is supported by NSF grants AST-1911151 and AST-1911225.

This research has made use of the NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS) Bibliographic Services, and the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

This paper uses observations made with the MuSCAT3 instrument, developed by the Astrobiology Center and under financial supports by JSPS KAKENHI (JP18H05439) and JST PRESTO (JPMJPR1775), at Faulkes Telescope North on Maui, HI, operated by the Las Cumbres Observatory.

Some observations reported here were obtained at the MMT Observatory, a joint facility of the University of Arizona and the Smithsonian Institution.

This work includes observations obtained at the Southern Astrophysical Research (SOAR) telescope, which is a joint project of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovações (MCTI/LNA) do Brasil, the US National Science Foundation's NOIRLab, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC), and Michigan State University (MSU).

The LBT is an international collaboration among institutions in the United States, Italy, and Germany. LBT Corporation Members are: the University of Arizona on behalf of the Arizona Board of Regents; Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica, Italy; LBT Beteiligungsgesellschaft, Germany, representing the Max-Planck Society, the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam, and Heidelberg University; The Ohio State University; and the Research Corporation, on behalf of the University of Notre Dame, University of Minnesota, and University of Virginia. This paper made use of the modsCCDRed data reduction code developed in part with funds provided by NSF grants AST-9987045 and AST-1108693.

The data presented here were obtained in part with ALFOSC, which is provided by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) under a joint agreement with the University of Copenhagen and NOT.

This work has made use of data from the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) project. The Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) project is primarily funded to search for near-Earth asteroids through NASA grants NN12AR55G, 80NSSC18K0284, and 80NSSC18K1575; by-products of the NEO search include images and catalogs from the survey area. This work was partially funded by Kepler/K2 grant J1944/80NSSC19K0112, HST GO-15889, and STFC grants ST/T000198/1 and ST/S006109/1. The ATLAS science products have been made possible through the contributions of the University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy, the Queen's University Belfast, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the South African Astronomical Observatory, and the Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS), Chile.

This work includes data obtained with the Swope Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile, as part of the Swope Time Domain Key Project (PI: Piro; Co-Is: Coulter, Drout, Phillips, Holoien, French, Cowperthwaite, Burns, Madore, Foley, Kilpatrick, Rojas-Bravo, Dimitriadis, Hsiao). We thank Abdo Campillay and Yilin Kong-Riveros for observations on the Swope Telescope.

A major upgrade of the Kast spectrograph on the Shane 3 m telescope at Lick Observatory was made possible through generous gifts from the Heising-Simons Foundation and William and Marina Kast. Research at Lick Observatory is partially supported by a generous gift from Google.

NASA Keck time is administered by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute. Data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory from telescope time allocated to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through the agency's scientific partnership with the California Institute of Technology and the University of California. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.

Facilities

ADS - , ATCA - Australia Telescope Compact Array, CTIO:PROMPT - Panchromatic Robotic Optical Monitoring and Polarimetry Telescopes at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, LBT (MODS) - , Las Cumbres Observatory (Sinistro - , FLOYDS) - , Keck I (LRIS) - , Keck II (NIRES) - , NED - , SALT (RSS) - , SOAR (GHTS - , TripleSpec) - , Lick Shane (Kast) - , WISeREP - , USASK:PROMPT -

Software References

AIPS (Wells 1985), astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013, 2018), AutoPhOT (Brennan & Fraser 2022), Binospec pipeline (Kansky et al. 2019), CASA (McMullin et al. 2007), CMFGEN (Hillier & Miller 1998; Hillier & Dessart 2012), corner (Foreman-Mackey 2016), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013), FLOYDS pipeline (Valenti et al. 2014), HEA-Soft (NASA High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (Heasarc), 2014), HOTPANTS (Becker 2015), IDSRED (Müller Bravo 2023), lcogtsnpipe (Valenti et al. 2016), Light Curve Fitting (Hosseinzadeh & Gomez 2020), MatPLOTLIB (Hunter 2007), MIRIAD (Sault et al. 1995), modsCCDRed (Pogge 2019), NumPy (Harris et al. 2020), PESSTO pipeline (Smartt et al. 2015), photpipe (Rest et al. 2005), Photutils (Bradley et al. 2022), PyEmir (Pascual et al. 2010; Cardiel et al. 2019), PyNOT-redux (https://pypi.org/project/PyNOT-redux/), PypeIt (Prochaska et al. 2020b, 2020a), PySALT (Crawford et al. 2010), Scipy (Virtanen et al. 2020), SNIFS pipeline (Tucker et al. 2022), SNooPy (Burns et al. 2011), Spextool (Cushing et al. 2004), UCSC Spectral Pipeline (Siebert et al. 2019), WISeREP (Yaron & Gal-Yam 2012), YSE-PZ (Coulter et al. 2022, 2023)