Spectroscopic characterization of LOFAR radio-emitting M dwarfs

Abstract

Copyright and License

© The Authors 2026. Open Access article, published by EDP Sciences, under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Acknowledgement

These results are based on observations obtained with the Habitable-zone Planet Finder Spectrograph on the HET. The HPF team acknowledges support from NSF grants AST-1006676, AST-1126413, AST-1310885, AST-1517592, AST-1310875, ATI 2009889, ATI-2009982, AST-2108512, and the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NNA09DA76A) in the pursuit of precision radial velocities in the NIR. The HPF team also acknowledges support from the Heising-Simons Foundation via grant 2017-0494. This research was conducted in part under NSF grants AST-2108493, AST-2108512, AST-2108569, and AST-2108801 in support of the HPF Guaranteed Time Observations survey. Based on observations obtained with the Hobby-Eberly Telescope (HET), which is a joint project of the University of Texas at Austin, the Pennsylvania State University, Ludwig-Maximillians-Universitaet Muenchen, and Georg-August Universitaet Goettingen. The HET is named in honor of its principal benefactors, William P. Hobby and Robert E. Eberly. We acknowledge support from NASA XRP Grant 80NSSC24K0155. We acknowledge the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) at the University of Texas at Austin for providing high performance computing, visualization, and storage resources that have contributed to the results reported within this paper. We thank the Resident astronomers and Telescope Operators at the HET for the skillful execution of our observations with HPF. Data presented were obtained by the NEID spectrograph built by Penn State University and operated at the WIYN Observatory by NOIRLab, under the NN-EXPLORE partnership of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. The NEID archive is operated by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute at the California Institute of Technology. We thank the NEID Queue Observers and WIYN Observing Associates for their skillful execution of our observations. Based on observations at NSF Kitt Peak National Observatory, NSF NOIRLab (NOIRLab Prop. ID 2021A-0389, PI Paul Robertson, and NOIRLab Prop. ID 2022A-452266, PI Shubham Kanodia), which is managed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the U.S. National Science Foundation. The authors are honored to be permitted to conduct astronomical research on I’oligam Du’ag (Kitt Peak), a mountain with particular significance to the Tohono O’odham. Based on data from the CARMENES data archive at CAB (CSIC-INTA). The CARMENES archive is part of the Spanish Virtual Observatory project (http://svo.cab.inta-csic.es), funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ through grant PID2020-112949GB-I00. This research has made use of the Keck Observatory Archive (KOA), which is operated by the W.M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute (NExScI), under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research used the facilities of the Italian Center for Astronomical Archive (IA2) operated by INAF at the Astronomical Observatory of Trieste. This research made use of the NASA Exoplanet Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program. This work has made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). The Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds and the Penn State Extraterrestrial Intelligence Center are supported by Penn State and its Eberly College of Science. R.D.K. acknowledges funding from the Dutch Research Council (NWO) for the project ‘e-MAPS’ (project number Vi.Vidi.203.093) under the NWO talent scheme VIDI. J.I.E.-R. gratefully acknowledges support from the ANID BASAL project FB210003 and from the ANID Doctorado Nacional grant 2021-21212378. C.I.C. acknowledges support by NASA Headquarters through an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by ORAU through a contract with NASA. J.R.C. acknowledges funding from the European Union via the European Research Council (ERC) grant Epaphus (project number: 101166008). The research was carried out, in part, at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (80NM0018D0004).

Data Availability

Tables 1 and A.1 and A.2 are available at the CDS via https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/A+A/706/A98. A reproduction package can be found on Zenodo under https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15491027. The package includes a relatively high S/N spectrum of each target, and all used NEID and HPF spectra of GJ 3861 and GJ 625. The package also includes intermediate data products that can be used to reproduce the figures in this paper.