Euclid preparation. LXXXVI. Cosmic Dawn Survey: Evolution of the galaxy stellar mass function across 0.2 < z ≤ 6.5 measured over 10 square degrees

Euclid Collaboration; Zalesky, L.; Weaver, J. R.; McPartland, C. J. R.; Murphree, G.; Valdes, I.; Jespersen, C. K.; Taamoli, S.; Chartab, N.; Allen, N.; Barrow, S. W. J.; Sanders, D. B.; Toft, S.; Mobasher, B.; Szapudi, I.; Altieri, B.; Amara, A.; Andreon, S.; Auricchio, N.; Baccigalupi, C.; Baldi, M.; Bardelli, S.; Battaglia, P.; Biviano, A.; Bonino, D.; Branchini, E.; Brescia, M.; Brinchmann, J.; Caillat, A.; Camera, S.; Cañas-Herrera, G.; Capobianco, V.; Carbone, C.; Carretero, J.; Casas, S.; Castander, F. J.; Castellano, M.; Castignani, G.; Cavuoti, S.; Chambers, K. C.; Cimatti, A.; Colodro-Conde, C.; Congedo, G.; Conselice, C. J.; Conversi, L.; Copin, Y.; Courbin, F.; Courtois, H. M.; Da Silva, A.; Degaudenzi, H.; De Lucia, G.; Di Giorgio, A. M.; Dole, H.; Dubath, F.; Duncan, C. A. J.; Dupac, X.; Dusini, S.; Ealet, A.; Escoffier, S.; Farina, M.; Farinelli, R.; Farrens, S.; Faustini, F.; Ferriol, S.; Finelli, F.; Fosalba, P.; Fotopoulou, S.; Frailis, M.; Franceschi, E.; Fumana, M.; George, K.; Gillis, B.; Giocoli, C.; Gracia-Carpio, J.; Grazian, A.; Grupp, F.; Gwyn, S.; Haugan, S. V. H.; Holmes, W.; Hook, I.; Hormuth, F.; Hornstrup, A.; Jahnke, K.; Jhabvala, M.; Joachimi, B.; Keihänen, E.; Kermiche, S.; Kiessling, A.; Kubik, B.; Kuijken, K.; Kümmel, M.; Kunz, M.; Kurki-Suonio, H.; Le Brun, A. M. C.; Le Mignant, D.; Ligori, S.; Lilje, P. B.; Lindholm, V.; Lloro, I.; Mainetti, G.; Maino, D.; Maiorano, E.; Mansutti, O.; Marggraf, O.; Markovic, K.; Martinelli, M.; Martinet, N.; Marulli, F.; Massey, R.; Maurogordato, S.; McCracken, H. J.; Medinaceli, E.; Mei, S.; Mellier, Y.; Meneghetti, M.; Merlin, E.; Meylan, G.; Mora, A.; Moresco, M.; Moscardini, L.; Nakajima, R.; Neissner, C.; Niemi, S.-M.; Nightingale, J. W.; Padilla, C.; Paltani, S.; Pasian, F.; Pedersen, K.; Pettorino, V.; Polenta, G.; Poncet, M.; Popa, L. A.; Pozzetti, L.; Raison, F.; Rebolo, R.; Renzi, A.; Rhodes, J.; Riccio, G.; Romelli, E.; Roncarelli, M.; Saglia, R.; Sakr, Z.; Sapone, D.; Sartoris, B.; Schewtschenko, J. A.; Schirmer, M.; Schneider, P.; Schrabback, T.; Secroun, A.; Sefusatti, E.; Seidel, G.; Serrano, S.; Simon, P.; Sirignano, C.; Sirri, G.; Stanco, L.; Starck, J.-L.; Steinwagner, J.; Tallada-Crespí, P.; Tavagnacco, D.; Taylor, A. N.; Teplitz, H. I.; Tereno, I.; Toledo-Moreo, R.; Torradeflot, F.; Tsyganov, A.; Tutusaus, I.; Valenziano, L.; Valiviita, J.; Vassallo, T.; Verdoes Kleijn, G.; Veropalumbo, A.; Wang, Y.; Weller, J.; Zacchei, A.; Zamorani, G.; Zucca, E.; Bolzonella, M.; Bozzo, E.; Burigana, C.; Calabrese, M.; Di Ferdinando, D.; Escartin Vigo, J. A.; Gabarra, L.; Matthew, S.; Mauri, N.; Pezzotta, A.; Pöntinen, M.; Porciani, C.; Scottez, V.; Tenti, M.; Viel, M.; Wiesmann, M.; Akrami, Y.; Allevato, V.; Andika, I. T.; Anselmi, S.; Archidiacono, M.; Atrio-Barandela, F.; Ballardini, M.; Bertacca, D.; Bethermin, M.; Blanchard, A.; Blot, L.; Borgani, S.; Brown, M. L.; Bruton, S.; Cabanac, R.; Calabro, A.; Camacho Quevedo, B.; Cappi, A.; Caro, F.; Carvalho, C. S.; Castro, T.; Chary, R.; Cogato, F.; Contini, T.; Cooray, A. R.; Cucciati, O.; Davini, S.; De Paolis, F.; Desprez, G.; Díaz-Sánchez, A.; Di Domizio, S.; Diego, J. M.; Ferrari, A. G.; Finoguenov, A.; Ganga, K.; García-Bellido, J.; Gasparetto, T.; Gaztanaga, E.; Giacomini, F.; Gianotti, F.; Gozaliasl, G.; Gregorio, A.; Guidi, M.; Gutierrez, C. M.; Hall, A.; Hartley, W. G.; Hemmati, S.; Hildebrandt, H.; Hjorth, J.; Huertas-Company, M.; Ilbert, O.; Kajava, J. J. E.; Kang, Y.; Kansal, V.; Karagiannis, D.; Kirkpatrick, C. C.; Kruk, S.; Lattanzi, M.; Le Graet, J.; Legrand, L.; Lembo, M.; Leroy, G.; Lesgourgues, J.; Liaudat, T. I.; Loureiro, A.; Macias-Perez, J.; Maggio, G.; Magliocchetti, M.; Mancini, C.; Mannucci, F.; Maoli, R.; Martín-Fleitas, J.; Martins, C. J. A. P.; Maurin, L.; Metcalf, R. B.; Miluzio, M.; Monaco, P.; Moretti, C.; Morgante, G.; Murray, C.; Naidoo, K.; Natoli, P.; Navarro-Alsina, A.; Nesseris, S.; Paterson, K.; Patrizii, L.; Pisani, A.; Potter, D.; Risso, I.; Rocci, P.-F.; Sahlén, M.; Sarpa, E.; Schaye, J.; Schneider, A.; Schultheis, M.; Sciotti, D.; Sellentin, E.; Sereno, M.; Shankar, F.; Smith, L. C.; Stanford, S. A.; Tanidis, K.; Tao, C.; Testera, G.; Teyssier, R.; Tosi, S.; Troja, A.; Tucci, M.; Valieri, C.; Venhola, A.; Vergani, D.; Verza, G.; Vielzeuf, P.; Walton, N. A.

doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202555728

Published April 2026 | Version Published

Journal Article Open

Euclid preparation. LXXXVI. Cosmic Dawn Survey: Evolution of the galaxy stellar mass function across 0.2 < z ≤ 6.5 measured over 10 square degrees

1. University of Hawaii at Manoa
2. University of Massachusetts Amherst
3. University of Copenhagen
4. Princeton University
5. University of California, Riverside
6. Infrared Processing and Analysis Center
7. Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN)
8. European Space Astronomy Centre
9. University of Surrey
10. Brera Astronomical Observatory
11. INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129, Bologna, Italy
12. Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe
13. Trieste Astronomical Observatory
14. INFN Sezione di Trieste
15. International School for Advanced Studies
16. University of Bologna
17. INFN Sezione di Bologna
18. Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino
19. University of Genoa
20. INFN Sezione di Genova
21. University of Naples Federico II
22. Astronomical Observatory of Capodimonte
23. University of Porto
24. French National Centre for Scientific Research
25. University of Turin
26. INFN Sezione di Torino
27. European Space Research and Technology Centre
28. Leiden University
29. Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale e Fisica Cosmica di Milano
30. Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas
31. Port d'Informació Científica
32. RWTH Aachen University
33. Institute of Space Sciences
34. Institut d'Estudis Espacials de Catalunya
35. Astronomical Observatory of Rome
36. INFN Sezione di Napoli
37. Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias
38. University of Edinburgh
39. University of Manchester
40. European Space Research Institute
41. Claude Bernard University Lyon 1
42. University of Barcelona
43. Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats
44. UCB Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IUF, IP2I Lyon, 4 rue Enrico Fermi, 69622, Villeurbanne, France
45. University of Lisbon
46. University of Geneva
47. Institute for Space Astrophysics and Planetology
48. Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale
49. INFN Sezione di Padova
50. Center for Particle Physics of Marseilles
51. University of Paris
52. Agenzia Spaziale Italiana
53. University of Bristol
54. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
55. Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics
56. Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova
57. Herzberg Astronomy and Astrophysics Research Centre, 5071 W. Saanich Rd, Victoria, BC, V9E 2E7, Canada
58. University of Oslo
59. Jet Propulsion Lab
60. Lancaster University
61. Felix Hormuth Engineering, Goethestr. 17, 69181, Leimen, Germany
62. Technical University of Denmark
63. Max Planck Institute for Astronomy
64. Goddard Space Flight Center
65. University College London
66. University of Helsinki
67. Helsinki Institute of Physics
68. Square Kilometre Array Organisation
69. Centre de Calcul de l'Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules
70. University of Milan
71. INFN Sezione di Milano
72. University of Bonn
73. INFN Sezione di Roma I
74. Durham University
75. Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur
76. Lagrange Laboratory
77. Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris
78. Astroparticle and Cosmology Laboratory
79. CNRS-UCB International Research Laboratory, Centre Pierre Binétruy, IRL2007, CPB-IN2P3, Berkeley, USA
80. École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
81. Aurora Technology for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692, Madrid, Spain
82. Institute for High Energy Physics
83. Newcastle University
84. Centre National d'Études Spatiales
85. Institute of Space Science
86. Spanish National Research Council
87. University of La Laguna
88. University of Padua
89. Heidelberg University
90. Research Institute in Astrophysics and Planetology
91. Université St Joseph; Faculty of Sciences, Beirut, Lebanon
92. University of Chile
93. Universität Innsbruck
94. Satlantis, University Science Park, Sede Bld 48940, Leioa-Bilbao, Spain
95. Polytechnic University of Cartagena
96. University of Groningen
97. Istituto di Radioastronomia di Bologna
98. Astronomical Observatory of the Autonomous Region of the Aosta Valley (OAVdA), Loc. Lignan 39, I-11020, Nus (Aosta Valley), Italy
99. University of Oxford
100. Groupe Institut supérieur d'agriculture de Lille
101. ICSC – Centro Nazionale di Ricerca in High Performance Computing, Big Data e Quantum Computing, Via Magnanelli 2, Bologna, Italy
102. Institute for Theoretical Physics
103. Case Western Reserve University
104. Technical University of Munich
105. Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics
106. University of Salamanca
107. University of Ferrara
108. INFN Sezione di Ferrara
109. Observatory of Strasbourg
110. University of Tokyo
111. University of Trieste
112. California Institute of Technology
113. University of California, Los Angeles
114. University of California, Irvine
115. University of Salento
116. INFN Sezione di Lecce
117. INAF-Sezione di Lecce, c/o Dipartimento Matematica e Fisica, Via per Arnesano, 73100, Lecce, Italy
118. Institute of Physics of Cantabria
119. University of Portsmouth
120. Aalto University
121. Ruhr University Bochum
122. Sorbonne University
123. University of Turku
124. Serco for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692, Madrid, Spain
125. ARC Centre of Excellence for Dark Matter Particle Physics
126. Swinburne University of Technology
127. University of the Western Cape
128. University of Cambridge
129. Institut de Recherche sur les Lois Fondamentales de l'Univers
130. Stockholm University
131. Imperial College London
132. Grenoble Institute of Technology
133. Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory
134. Sapienza University of Rome
135. Centre for Astrophysics of the University of Porto
136. HE Space for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692, Madrid, Spain
137. University of Zurich
138. Uppsala University
139. University of Southampton
140. University of California, Davis
141. University of Oulu
142. Center for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, 162 5th Avenue, 10010, New York, NY, USA

The Cosmic Dawn Survey pre-launch catalogues cover an effective 10.13 deg² area with uniform deep Spitzer/IRAC data (m ∼ 25 mag, 5σ), the largest area covered to these depths at IR wavelengths. We used these data to gain new insight into the growth of stellar mass across cosmic history by characterising the evolution of the galaxy stellar mass function through 0.2 < z ≤ 6.5. The total volume (0.62 Gpc³) represents an order of magnitude increase compared to previous works that explored z > 3 and significantly reduces cosmic variance, thus yielding strong constraints on the abundance of galaxies above the characteristic stellar mass (ℳ^★) across this ten billion year period. The evolution of the galaxy stellar mass function is generally consistent with results from the literature but now provides firm estimates of the number density where only upper limits were previously available. Contrasting the galaxy stellar mass function with the dark matter halo mass function suggests that massive galaxies (ℳ ≳ 10¹¹ M_⊙) at z > 3.5 required integrated star-formation efficiencies of ℳ/(ℳ_hf_b)≳ 0.25–0.5, in excess of the commonly held view of a ‘universal peak efficiency’ from studies on the stellar-to-halo mass relation. Such increased efficiencies imply an evolving peak in the stellar-to-halo mass relation at z > 3.5 that can be maintained if feedback mechanisms from active galactic nuclei and stellar processes are ineffective at early times. In addition, a significant fraction of the most massive quiescent galaxies are observed to be in place by z ∼ 2.5–3. The apparent lack of change in their number density by z ∼ 0.2 is consistent with relatively little mass growth from mergers. Utilising the unique volume, we find evidence of an environmental dependence of the galaxy stellar mass function all the way through z ∼ 3.5 for the first time, though a more careful characterisation of the density field is ultimately required for confirmation.

Copyright and License

© The Authors 2026. Open Access article, published by EDP Sciences, under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Acknowledgement

J.R.W. acknowledges that support for this work was provided by The Brinson Foundation through a Brinson Prize Fellowship grant. The Euclid Consortium acknowledges the European Space Agency and a number of agencies and institutes that have supported the development of Euclid, in particular the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, the Austrian Forschungsförderungsgesellschaft funded through BMIMI, the Belgian Science Policy, the Canadian Euclid Consortium, the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, the DTU Space and the Niels Bohr Institute in Denmark, the French Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, the Netherlandse Onderzoekschool Voor Astronomie, the Norwegian Space Agency, the Research Council of Finland, the Romanian Space Agency, the Swiss Space Office (SSO) at the State Secretariat for Education, Research, and Innovation (SERI), and the United Kingdom Space Agency. A complete and detailed list is available on the Euclid web site (www.euclid-ec.org/consortium/community/).

Data Availability

FITS files are available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/A+A/708/A104

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Is new version of: Discussion Paper: arXiv:2504.17867 (arXiv)

Brinson Foundation
European Space Agency

Submitted: 2025-05-29
Accepted: 2025-11-07
Available: 2026-03-30

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Caltech groups: Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC) , Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy (PMA)
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Euclid preparation. LXXXVI. Cosmic Dawn Survey: Evolution of the galaxy stellar mass function across 0.2 < z ≤ 6.5 measured over 10 square degrees

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Euclid preparation. LXXXVI. Cosmic Dawn Survey: Evolution of the galaxy stellar mass function across 0.2 < z ≤ 6.5 measured over 10 square degrees

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